People vary in how they relate to time. Some focus on the future and set long-term goals, while others dwell on past regrets or live only for the present. At the same time, people also differ in their daily rhythms — with some rising early and others staying up late. A new study published in Personality and Individual Differences suggests that these two tendencies may work together to influence mood. The study provides evidence that both how people think about time and when they prefer to be active during the day are related to depressive symptoms.
Previous research has shown that both time perspective and chronotype — a person’s preferred timing of sleep and activity — are associated with mental health, including depression. People who have a more negative view of the past or who believe they lack control over their lives in the present tend to report more depressive symptoms. Likewise, people who are more evening-oriented tend to experience more mood problems than morning-oriented individuals.
These two areas of research have developed largely in parallel. While each has been linked to depression separately, few studies have examined how they might interact. Some researchers have speculated that chronotype could shape how people think about time, or vice versa.
The author of the current study, Professor Konrad S. Jankowski of the University of Warsaw, proposed that a person’s time perspective might influence their chronotype. For example, people who are more future-oriented may be more motivated to wake up early and stick to a schedule in order to pursue long-term goals.
“More and more people suffer from depression, so it’s important to identify predisposing factors to identify vulnerable individuals and provide them tailored protective measures,” explained Jankowski, the director of the Department of Psychometrics and Psychological Diagnosis at Faculty of Psychology. “We already knew that how people think about time (for example, focusing on the past or planning for the future) and whether they’re a ‘morning person’ or ‘night owl’ both relate to mood. I wanted to see if orienting towards a given time horizon may shape habitual sleep times that in turn impact depressive symptoms.”
“This is the first study to suggest that our sleep rhythm might be shaped by the way we think about time. It’s a reminder that our mental habits and daily routines are closely linked—and both matter for emotional well-being.”
The study included 343 adults, most of whom were university students. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 63, with a strong majority identifying as women. They completed an online survey that included measures of time perspective, chronotype, and depressive symptoms. The study excluded individuals who had recently crossed time zones, worked overnight shifts, or were taking sleep or depression-related medications, in order to avoid confounding factors.
Time perspective was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, a questionnaire that assesses how people relate to the past, present, and future. It includes five dimensions: past-negative (a tendency to dwell on negative past events), past-positive (a fondness for positive memories), present-hedonistic (a focus on pleasure and immediate gratification), present-fatalistic (a belief that one’s fate is out of their control), and future-oriented (a tendency to plan for and focus on long-term goals). Jankowski also calculated a measure called “deviation from balanced time perspective,” which reflects an unbalanced or unhealthy time orientation.
Chronotype was measured using a shortened version of the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire. Higher scores on this scale indicate a preference for earlier wake and sleep times. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, a widely used measure that captures both clinical and subclinical symptoms.
The results showed that depressive symptoms were related to several dimensions of time perspective. People who had a more negative view of the past, who felt less control over their lives in the present, or who lacked a clear future orientation reported higher levels of depression. Lower scores on the past-positive and future-oriented scales were also linked to more depressive symptoms, as was a less balanced time perspective overall.
Chronotype was also linked to both depression and time perspective. Evening-oriented individuals reported more depressive symptoms. They also scored lower on the future and past-positive dimensions and had a less balanced time perspective profile.
When Jankowski tested whether chronotype mediated the relationship between time perspective and depressive symptoms, he found partial mediation for two specific dimensions: future orientation and past-positive. People who scored higher on either of these dimensions were more likely to be morning-oriented, which in turn was associated with fewer depressive symptoms.
“People who look ahead with hope or remember their past in a positive light tend to go to bed and wake up earlier — and they usually feel better, too,” Jankowski told PsyPost. “Thinking about good memories before bed or focusing on future goals can actually help you sleep in sync with the world’s morning routines, which might give your mood a healthy boost.”
In statistical terms, morningness accounted for about half of the total association between future orientation and depression, and a smaller portion of the link between past-positive thinking and depression. “The effects weren’t huge, but they do matter,” Jankowski explained. “Even small differences in mindset and sleep habits can add up over time to affect how we feel day to day.”
Chronotype did not mediate the association between an unbalanced time perspective and depressive symptoms, which suggests that not all time perspective effects on mood are explained by sleep–wake patterns.
“I was surprised that a positive view of the past mattered more for being a morning person than a lack of negative memories,” Jankowski said. “It seems that recalling good experiences, rather than simply avoiding bad ones, is what helps people keep healthier sleep patterns.”
These findings remained consistent even after accounting for age and gender. The study also confirmed previously reported gender differences in depression, with women reporting more symptoms than men. No significant gender differences were found for chronotype or most time perspective dimensions.
As with any cross-sectional study, these findings cannot prove causality. While the proposed model suggests that time perspective influences chronotype, which in turn affects mood, other interpretations are possible. For example, it could be that mood affects how people think about time or when they prefer to sleep.
Future research could build on these findings by using longitudinal designs to clarify the direction of the observed relationships. Experimental studies could test whether interventions aimed at modifying time perspective or chronotype can reduce depressive symptoms. The researcher also plans to explore how specific sleep behaviors, such as bedtime routines or use of electronic devices, may influence the link between time perspective and mood.
One important caveat is that these patterns reflect average tendencies across the group and may not apply to every individual. Depression is a complex condition influenced by many factors, including genetics, life experiences, and social context.
“A common misunderstanding would be to assume these patterns apply to everyone or could ‘fix’ depression on their own,” Jankowski explained. “The results reflect group-level trends, not individual rules — so while the links between time perspective, sleep habits, and mood are clear on average, they won’t hold true for every person. These factors can support well-being in some people, but they’re only part of a much bigger picture.”
Still, the findings raise the possibility that helping people think more positively about their past or plan more effectively for the future could promote healthier daily rhythms and improve emotional well-being. If replicated and extended, this line of research could inform new strategies for supporting mental health that incorporate both psychological and behavioral components.
“My next goal is to dig deeper into how time perspective connects to depression by looking at specific sleep habits and routines,” Jankowski said. “I want to see which sleep hygiene behaviors — like bedtime consistency, screen use, or relaxation before sleep — help explain the link between how we think about time and how we feel.
The study, “Time perspective and depressive symptoms: mediating role of chronotype,” was authored by Konrad S. Jankowski.